An elegant way to precisely target 👉🏻optogenetic probes👈🏻👉🏻 to individual neurons is to use single-cell 👉🏻electroporation42,44 (Fig. 3). This involves using 👉🏻2-photon microscopy👈🏻 to target a plasmid-filled patch pipette to 👉🏻individual neurons in vivo and using 👉🏻electrical pulses33,34 to deliver the 👉🏻plasmid to the cell 👈🏻👉🏻under visual control.👉🏻 Neurons can be targeted this way based on their somatodendritic morphology👉🏻 (using ‘shadowimaging’33), 👉🏻their genetic identity👉🏻 (using GFP expression as a marker) 👉🏻or their functional properties (such as tuned responses to sensory stimuli) for subsequent 👉🏻optogenetic activation34.👈🏻

Yup.

People are now row-bots.

Hey Photon,

👉🏻momentarily👈🏻

And, of course, that makes uninformed abuse okay.🙄

2-photon microscopy

Two-photon excitation microscopy (TPEF or 2PEF) is a fluorescence imaging technique that allows imaging of living tissue up to about one millimeter in thickness. Unlike traditional fluorescence microscopy, in which the excitation wavelength is shorter than the emission wavelength, two-photon excitation requires simultaneous excitation by two photons with longer wavelength than the emitted light.

A fluorophore (or fluorochrome, similarly to a chromophore) is a fluorescent chemical compound that can re-emit light upon light excitation. Fluorophores typically contain several combined aromatic groups, or planar or cyclic molecules with several π bonds.

Fluorophores are sometimes used alone, as a tracer in fluids, as a dye for staining of certain structures, as a substrate of enzymes, or as a probe or indicator (when its fluorescence is affected by environmental aspects such as polarity or ions). More generally they are covalently bonded to a macromolecule, serving as a marker (or dye, or tag, or reporter) for affine or bioactive reagents (antibodies, peptides, nucleic acids). Fluorophores are notably used to stain tissues, cells, or materials in a variety of analytical methods, i.e., fluorescent imaging and spectroscopy.

Fluorescein, via its amine-reactive isothiocyanate derivative fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), has been one of the most popular fluorophores. From antibody labeling, the applications have spread to nucleic acids thanks to carboxyfluorescein (FAM), TET, ...). Other historically common fluorophores are derivatives of rhodamine (TRITC), coumarin, and cyanine.[2] Newer generations of fluorophores, many of which are proprietary, often perform better, being more photostable, brighter, and/or less pH-sensitive than traditional dyes with comparable excitation and emission

The fluorophore absorbs light energy of a specific wavelength and re-emits light at a longer wavelength. The absorbed wavelengths, energy transfer efficiency, and time before emission depend on both the fluorophore structure and its chemical environment, as the molecule in its excited state interacts with surrounding molecules. Wavelengths of maximum absorption (≈ excitation) and emission (for example, Absorption/Emission = 485 nm/517 nm) are the typical terms used to refer to a given fluorophore, but the whole spectrum may be important to consider.

Two-photon excitation microscopy typically uses near-infrared (NIR) excitation light which can also excite fluorescent dyes. However, for each excitation, two photons of NIR light are absorbed. Using infrared light minimizes scattering in the tissue. Due to the multiphoton absorption, the background signal is strongly suppressed. Both effects lead to an increased penetration depth for this technique. Two-photon excitation can be a superior alternative to confocal microscopy due to its deeper tissue penetration, efficient light detection, and reduced photobleaching.

Using two-photon fluorescence and second-harmonic generation–based microscopy, it was shown that organic porphyrin-type molecules can have different transition dipole moments for two-photon fluorescence and second harmonic generation,[13] which are otherwise thought to occur from the same transition dipole moment

Progressively; moment by moment.

step by step

wave by wave

Modulation allows us to send a signal over a bandpass frequency range. If every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel, all using different frequency ranges. Another reason to modulate a signal is to allow the use of a smaller antenna.