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Typically, the tube containing the liquid in a spirit level is cylindrical, rectangular or crescent-shaped, and is marked with a central point and/or into sections, and the tube is deliberately filled with a small air space which creates a bubble.

https://steemit.com/steemi...

Sonoluminescence is a phenomenon that occurs when a small gas bubble is acoustically suspended and periodically driven in a liquid solution at ultrasonic frequencies, resulting in bubble collapse, cavitation, and light emission.

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The photon is emitted with the electron moving from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.

The energy of the photon is the exact energy that is lost by the electron moving to its lower energy level.

The color of light that is emitted by an atom depends on how much energy the electron releases as it moves down different energy levels. When the electrons return to lower energy levels, they release extra energy and that can be in the form of light causing the emission of light.

Abstract

Convincing evidence supports a role for oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of many chronic diseases. The model includes the formation of radical oxygen species (ROS) and the misassembly and aggregation of proteins when three tiers of cellular defence are insufficient: (a) direct antioxidative systems, (b) molecular damage repairing systems, and (c) compensatory chaperone synthesis. The aim of the present overview is to introduce (a) the basics of free radical and antioxidant metabolism, (b) the role of the protein quality control system in protecting cells from free radical damage and its relation to chronic diseases, (c) the basics of the ultraweak luminescence as marker of the oxidant status of biological systems, and (d) the research in human photon emission as a non-invasive marker of oxidant status in relation to chronic diseases.

In considering the role of free radicals in disease, both their generation and their control by the antioxidant system are part of the story. Excessive free radical production leads to the production of heat shock proteins and chaperone proteins as a second line of protection against damage. Chaperones at the molecular level facilitate stress regulation vis-à-vis protein quali y control mechanisms.

The manifestation of misfolded proteins and aggregates is a hallmark of a range of neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amylotrophic lateral sclerosis, polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases, diabetes and many others. Each of these disorders exhibits aging-dependent onset and a progressive, usually fatal clinical course.

The second part reviews the current status of human photon emission techniques and protocols for recording the human oxidative status. Sensitive photomultiplier tubes may provide a tool for non-invasive and continuous monitoring of oxidative metabolism. In that respect, recording ultraweak luminescence has been favored compared to other indirect assays. Several biological models have been used to illustrate the technique in cell cultures and organs in vivo.

This initiated practical applications addressing specific human pathological issues. Systematic studies on human emission have presented information on: (a) procedures for reliable measurements, and spectral analysis, (b) anatomic intensity of emission and left-right symmetries, (c) biological rhythms in emission, (d) physical and psychological influences on emission, (e) novel physical characteristics of emission, and (f) the identification of ultraweak photon emission with the staging of ROS-related damage and disease. It is concluded that both patterns and physical properties of ultraweak photon emission hold considerable promise as measure for the oxidative status.

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Almost all modern precision scales use a Bubble (or Spirit) Level to indicate the level condition. Scales usually have two adjustable legs that allow the user to level the balance. These scales have three legs in all, one of them being fixed. The triangular stance is the most stable and easiest to adjust. Some scales have four legs and all four are adjustable. These scales are much harder to level, and have a definite tendency to rock.

The level usually is circular when viewed from above, and has a circular bull’s eye to indicate a level condition when the bubble is centered in the eye. The feet of the precision scale should be adjusted in such a way as to cause the bubble to move to the center of the eye. Many users level the scale once and assume that will keep the scale level as long as it is on that same surface. However, scales frequently are moved small distances when in use or by accident. Even a small movement can cause a significant change in the scales calibration, if the surface is uneven or warped.

The redox status could be defined as the balance between oxidants (or pro-oxidants) and antioxidants (Fig. 1). Oxidants, including free radicals and other reactive species, are continuously produced in the cell.

oxidant (n.)

"an oxidizing agent," 1859, from French oxidant (1806), from oxider "oxidize" (see oxidation).

The phenomenon of nucleation is a thermodynamic process that governs phase separation in both natural and technological processes, like bubble formation in electrochemical systems. Nucleation is affected by both temperature and supersaturation level of the liquid.

The presence of insoluble inclusions (as discussed earlier) provides interfaces for cavitation and gas bubble nucleation. As a result, the cavitation threshold is decreased and the degassing starts at a lower ultrasonic intensity. At the same time, the absorption of hydrogen at the inclusions retards the degassing and the earlier onset of cavitation results in dynamic equilibrium being reached earlier by the aluminum–oxide–hydrogen system. Therefore the presence of inclusions may decrease the overall efficiency of degassing. On the other hand, the absorption of hydrogen onto the inclusions and the formation of an attached bubble may trigger the flotation of small inclusions, effectively cleaning the melt of both inclusions and hydrogen.

https://www.sciencedirect....

Sediment can be de-saturated by introducing gas bubbles, which is found in various applications such as methane gas generation in landfill, microbial-induced gas bubble formation, air sparing method for soil remediation, heavy oil depressurization for carbon recovery, and gas production from hydrate bearing sediment.

The gas introduction method (e.g., nucleation and injection) and migration and trapping of gas bubbles affect the hydraulic conductivity, residual gas saturation, and the stability of these gassy sediments. In this study, the pore-network model is used to investigate gas bubble migration in porous media. Gas bubbles are introduced by mimicking either nucleation or injection. Based on the known gas bubble behavior available in the literature, numerical algorithms are developed to simulate the migration and trapping of gas bubbles in pore-network model.

The effect of gas bubble size distribution and pore size distribution on residual saturation is investigated. The results show that gas bubble size distribution becomes wider as gas bubbles coalesce to each other during migration. And the residual gas saturation increase with increasing bubble size and permeability reduction becomes apparent as the gas bubble size and the number of generated gas bubble increase.

Crystal formation in solution is a self-assembly process in which the crystal seed formed in liquid, known as homogeneous nucleation. If the seed of crystal is formed on the interface of liquid and solid, it is known as heterogeneous nucleation

A seed crystal is a small piece of single crystal or polycrystal material from which a large crystal of typically the same material is to be grown in a laboratory. Used to replicate material, the use of seed crystal to promote growth avoids the otherwise slow randomness of natural crystal growth and allows manufacture on a scale suitable for industry.

The large crystal can be grown by dipping the seed into a supersaturated solution, into molten material that is then cooled, or by growth on the seed face by passing vapor of the material to be grown over it.

Non-photochemical laser-induced nucleation (NPLIN) is the formation of a new phase from a metastable phase by the action of light on matter. Using millijoule, nanosecond laser pulses at visible and near-infrared wavelengths, it is possible to form the new phase localized in the volume of the beam.

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In optics, a Gaussian beam is a beam of electromagnetic radiation with high monochromaticity whose amplitude envelope in the transverse plane is given by a Gaussian function; this also implies a Gaussian intensity (irradiance) profile. This fundamental (or TEM00) transverse Gaussian mode describes the intended output of most (but not all) lasers, as such a beam can be focused into the most concentrated spot. When such a beam is refocused by a lens, the transverse phase dependence is altered; this results in a different Gaussian beam. The electric and magnetic field amplitude profiles along any such circular Gaussian beam (for a given wavelength and polarization) are determined by a single parameter: the so-called waist w0. At any position z relative to the waist (focus) along a beam having a specified w0, the field amplitudes and phases are thereby determined[1] as detailed below.

"as such a beam can be focused into the most concentrated spot."

https://opg.optica.org/oe/...

An optical level is an instrument used to establish or verify points in the same horizontal plane.

Excitation of quantum emitters with the micro parabolic mirror. a A collimated laser beam at λex = 442 nm causes fluorescence of all quantum dots in the focal plane, while the parabolic mirror reflects the laser beam exciting quantum dots only in its focal spot resulting in a bright intensity spot in the centre of mirror aperture (dashed white circle). b The green intensity cross section of the micro parabolic focal spot was acquired along the dotted white line in panel a. The blue cross section was obtained by focusing with the high NA objective in the position of parabolic mirror focal spot. The red line shows the simulated focal spot intensity cross section.