The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 06:45
So ultrasound is non ionizing radiation...?

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 06:48
In response The Mac to his Publication
A phased array ultrasound transducer is typically 2-3 cm long, consisting of 64-128 elements. It is a smaller assembly than a sequential array and can be either linear or curvilinear.

A sector field of view is produced by all elements firing to create a single waveform. Small delays in element firing allow for electronic field steering and focussing without moving the ultrasound probe. All elements will be fired multiple times with different degrees of steering to create an image. Echoes are detected by all elements and entered into an algorithm to form the image.

Line density decreases at the bottom of the image. The sensitivity of the image reduces at extremes of steering and lateral resolution is best in the centre of the field of view due to a larger effective aperture.

The benefits of a phased array include; a small faced transducer allowing for imaging in small spaces and being able to change the focus of the ultrasound beam.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 06:52
In response The Mac to his Publication
Phased array ultrasonics (PA) is an advanced method of ultrasonic testing that has applications in medical imaging and industrial nondestructive testing. Common applications are to noninvasively examine the heart or to find flaws in manufactured materials such as welds. Single-element (non-phased array) probes, known technically as monolithic probes, emit a beam in a fixed direction. To test or interrogate a large volume of material, a conventional probe must be physically scanned (moved or turned) to sweep the beam through the area of interest. In contrast, the beam from a phased array probe can be focused and swept electronically without moving the probe.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 06:53
In response The Mac to his Publication
The beam is controllable because a phased array probe is made up of multiple small elements, each of which can be pulsed individually at a computer-calculated timing. The term phased refers to the timing, and the term array refers to the multiple elements. Phased array ultrasonic testing is based on principles of wave physics, which also have applications in fields such as optics and electromagnetic antennae.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 06:54
In response The Mac to his Publication
The EBV genome in latently infected lymphoid cells offers an opportunity to follow effects on the transcriptional and translational product clearly distinguishable from those of the host cell genome. Exposure of Akata cells, a human lymphoid cell line latently infected by the EBV genome, to a 50 Hz EMF resulted in an increased number of cells expressing the virus early antigens. This finding provides additional evidence that DNA can be modulated by a magnetic field.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 06:56
In response The Mac to his Publication
As in DNA, genetic information in mRNA is contained in the sequence of nucleotides, which are arranged into codons consisting of three ribonucleotides each. Each codon codes for a specific amino acid, except the stop codons, which terminate protein synthesis. The translation of codons into amino acids requires two other types of RNA: transfer RNA, which recognizes the codon and provides the corresponding amino acid, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), the central component of the ribosome's protein-manufacturing machinery.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 07:03
In response The Mac to his Publication
Protein synthesis is the process of creating protein molecules. In biological systems, it involves amino acid synthesis, transcription, translation, and post-translational events. ... Within the cells, proteins are generated involving transcription and translation processes.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 07:04
In response The Mac to his Publication
Protein–DNA interactions occur when a protein binds a molecule of DNA, often to regulate the biological function of DNA, usually the expression of a gene.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 07:05
In response The Mac to his Publication
The OPN1LW gene provides instructions for making a protein that is essential for normal color vision. This protein is found in the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. The retina contains two types of light receptor cells, called rods and cones, that transmit visual signals from the eye to the brain. Rods provide vision in low light. Cones provide vision in bright light, including color vision. There are three types of cones, each containing a specific pigment (a photopigment called an opsin) that is most sensitive to particular wavelengths of light.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 07:06
In response The Mac to his Publication
The OPN1LW gene provides instructions for making an opsin pigment that is more sensitive to light in the yellow/orange part of the visible spectrum (long-wavelength light). Cones with this pigment are called long-wavelength-sensitive or L cones. In response to light, the photopigment triggers a series of chemical reactions within an L cone. These reactions ultimately alter the cell's electrical charge, generating a signal that is transmitted to the brain. The brain combines input from all three types of cones to produce normal color vision.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 07:07
In response The Mac to his Publication
The OPN1LW gene is located next to another opsin pigment gene, OPN1MW, on the X chromosome. The OPN1MW gene provides instructions for making a photopigment that is more sensitive to light at middle wavelengths (yellow/green light). Most people have one copy of the OPN1LW gene and one or more copies of the OPN1MW gene on each X chromosome. A nearby region of DNA, known as the locus control region (LCR), regulates the activity of these genes. Only the two opsin pigment genes nearest the LCR, generally the OPN1LW gene and the first copy of the OPN1MW gene, are active in the retina and contribute to color vision.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 07:08
In response The Mac to his Publication
Optogenetics is defined as the integration of optics and genetics to control well-defined events within specified cells of living tissue. In this introduction, we focus on the basic techniques necessary for employing microbial opsins as optogenetic tools in mammalian brains. We provide a guide for the fundamentals of optogenetic application—selecting an opsin, implementing expression of opsins based on the neuroscientific experimental requirements, and adapting the corresponding optical hardware for delivery of light into mammalian brains.

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The Mac @TheMac
Since the invention of optogenetics, using light to control the activity of individual neurons and dissect the complex neural circuits has been a powerful tool for neuroscience owing to the high temporal precision and neuron-type specificity. However, one of the major challenges of optogenetics is the invasive delivery of light sources such as fiber optics inside the brain of live animals due to limited tissue penetration of photons. Here, we report a method termed “sono-optogenetics,” which provides minimally invasive optogenetic neuromodulation in the brain without any scalp incision, craniotomy, or brain implant. Sono-optogenetics delivers nanoscopic light sources via the endogenous blood circulation and provides millisecond-timescale switching of light emission for optogenetic neuromodulation via brain-penetrant focused ultrasound.
07:14 AM - Jul 29, 2021
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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 07:18
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Animation showing the principle of an ultrasonic scanner used in medical ultrasonic imaging. It consists of a beamforming oscillator (TX) that produces an electronic signal consisting of pulses of sine waves oscillating at an ultrasonic frequency, which is applied to an array of ultrasonic transducers (T) in contact with the skin surface that convert the electric signal into ultrasonic waves traveling through the tissue.

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The Mac @TheMac
29 July, 07:18
In response The Mac to his Publication
The timing of the pulses emitted by each transducer is controlled by programmable delay units (φ) that are controlled by a microprocessor control system (C). The moving red lines are the wavefronts of the ultrasonic waves from each transducer. The wavefronts are spherical, but they combine (superpose) to form plane waves, creating a beam of sound traveling in a specific direction. Since the pulse from each transducer is progressively delayed going up the line, each transducer emits its pulse after the one below it. This results in a beam of sound waves emitted at an angle (θ) to the array. By changing the pulse delays, the computer can scan the beam of ultrasound in a raster pattern across the tissue. Echoes reflected by different density tissue, received by the transducers, build up an image of the underlying structures.

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